Every 14th February, across the country, chocolates, flowers, and gifts are exchanged between loved ones, the special ones all in the name of St. Valentine. This is the day Saint Valentine’s Day or commonly shortened to Valentine’s Day. February has long been a month of romance. St. Valentine’s Day, as we know it today, contains vestiges of both Christian and ancient Roman tradition.

Valentines Day

It is traditionally a day on which lovers express their love for each other. The holiday first became associated with romantic love in the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the High Middle Ages, when the tradition of courtly love flourished.
The sending of Valentines was a fashion in nineteenth-century Great Britain, and, in 1847, Esther Howland developed a successful business in her Worcester, Massachusetts home with hand-made Valentine cards based on British models. The popularity of Valentine cards in 19th century America, where many Valentine cards are now general greeting cards rather than declarations of love, was a harbinger of the future commercialization of holidays in the United States. It’s considered one of the Hallmark holidays.
The U.S. Greeting Card Association estimates that approximately one billion valentines are sent each year worldwide, making the day the second largest card-sending holiday of the year, behind Christmas. The association estimates that, in the US, men spend on average twice as much money as women.
Today’s valentine cards are graced with the likes of Scooby Doo, Spider Man, Winnie the Pooh and, of course, Cupid! But in 5th century Rome, where the whole business allegedly began, it was a different story. On February 15th the festival of Lupercalia was celebrated to ensure protection from wolves. The celebration paid homage the gods Faunus and Lupercus, as well as the twin brothers Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome. According to myth, Romulus and Remus were suckled by wolves at a cave on the Palatine Hill, in the city of Rome. The Romans appropriately named this cave the Lupercal, and used it as the center of Lupercalia ceremonies. Young men called Luperci(priests) were reported to have struck people with strips of animal hide. Women accepted the blows because they felt that this whipping would increase their fertility.

Saint Valentine

Which St. Valentine this early pope intended to honor remains a mystery:
according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, there were at least three early Christian saints by that name. One was a priest in Rome, another a bishop in Terni, and of a third St. Valentine almost nothing is known except that he met his end in Africa. Rather astonishingly, all three Valentines were said to have been martyred on Feb. 14.

St. Valentine

Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred about AD 269 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. His relics are at the Church of Saint Praxed in Rome, and at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland.

Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna (modern Terni) about AD 197 and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian. He is also buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location than Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni (Basilica di San Valentino).

The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a Third saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, but nothing more is known about him.
Valentine’s Day started in the time of the Roman Empire. In ancient Rome, February 14th was a holiday to honour Juno. Juno was the Queen of the Roman Gods and Goddesses. The Romans also knew her as the Goddess of women and marriage. The following day, February 15th, began the Feast of Lupercalia.

Valentine Stories

One legend contends that Valentine may have been killed for attempting to help Christians escape harsh Roman prisons where they were often beaten and tortured.
One legend contends that Valentine was a priest who served during the third century in Rome. When Emperor Claudius II decided that single men made better soldiers than those with wives and families, he outlawed marriage for young men — his crop of potential soldiers. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine’s actions were discovered, Claudius ordered that he be put to death.
Another story says that Valentine was one of the early Christians in those far-away days when that meant danger and death. For helping some Christian martyrs he was seized, dragged before the Prefect of Rome and cast into jail. There he cured the keeper’s daughter of blindness. When the cruel emperor learned of this miracle he gave orders that Valentine should be beheaded. The morning of the execution, he is said to have sent the keeper’s daughter a farewell message signed, “From your Valentine.”
While some believe that Valentine’s Day is celebrated in the middle of February to commemorate the anniversary of Valentine’s death or burial — which probably occurred around 270 A.D — others claim that the Christian church may have decided to celebrate Valentine’s feast day in the middle of February in an effort to ‘christianize’ celebrations of the pagan Lupercalia festival. In ancient Rome, February was the official beginning of spring and was considered a time for purification. Houses were ritually cleansed by sweeping them out and then sprinkling salt and a type of wheat called spelt throughout their interiors. Lupercalia, which began at the ides of February, February 15, was a fertility festival dedicated to Faunus, the Roman god of agriculture, as well as to the Roman founders Romulus and Remus.

Chaucer’s Love Birds
It was not until the 14th century that this Christian feast day became definitively associated with love. According to UCLA medieval scholar Henry Ansgar Kelly, author of Chaucer and the Cult of Saint Valentine, it was Geoffrey Chaucer who first linked St. Valentine’s Day with romance.

Valentine

In 1381, Chaucer composed a poem in honor of the engagement between England’s Richard II and Anne of Bohemia. As was the poetic tradition, Chaucer associated the occasion with a feast day. In “The Parliament of Fowls,” the royal engagement, the mating season of birds, and St. Valentine’s Day are linked:

For this was on St. Valentine’s Day,
When every fowl cometh there to choose his mate.

Readers have uncritically assumed that Chaucer was referring to February 14 as Valentine’s Day; however, mid-February is an unlikely time for birds to be mating in England. Henry Ansgar Kelly has pointed out that in the liturgical calendar, May 2 is the saints’ day for Valentine of Genoa. This St. Valentine was an early bishop of Genoa who died around AD 307.

Valentine’s Day Tradition

Hundreds of years ago in England, many children dressed up as adults on Valentine’s Day. They went singing from home to home. One verse they sang was:
Good morning to you, valentine;
Curl your locks as I do mine —
Two before and three behind.
Good morning to you, valentine.

In Wales wooden love spoons were carved and given as gifts on February 14th. Hearts, keys and keyholes were favourite decorations on the spoons. The decoration meant, “You unlock my heart!”
In the Middle Ages, young men and women drew names from a bowl to see who their valentines would be. They would wear these names on their sleeves for one week. To wear your heart on your sleeve now means that it is easy for other people to know how you are feeling.
In some countries, a young woman may receive a gift of clothing from a young man. If she keeps the gift, it means she will marry him.
Some people used to believe that if a woman saw a robin flying overhead on Valentine’s Day, it meant she would marry a sailor. If she saw a sparrow, she would marry a poor man and be very happy. If she saw a goldfinch, she would marry a millionaire.
A love seat is a wide chair. It was first made to seat one woman and her wide dress. Later, the love seat or courting seat had two sections, often in an S-shape. In this way, a couple could sit together — but not too closely!
Think of five or six names of boys or girls you might marry, As you twist the stem of an apple, recite the names until the stem comes off. You will marry the person whose name you were saying when the stem fell off.
Pick a dandelion that has gone to seed. Take a deep breath and blow the seeds into the wind. Count the seeds that remain on the stem. That is the number of children you will have.
If you cut an apple in half and count how many seeds are inside, you will also know how many children you will have.

Valentine Day in India

In India, in past Valentine’s Day has been explicitly discouraged by some of the Hindu fundamentalists, mainly the Shiv Sena, the Bajrang Dal, the Vishva Hindu Parishad an d Shri Ram Dal. Since 2001 there has been each year violent clashes between shopkeepers dealing in Valentine related items and Shiv Sena die-hards, who oppose it as “cultural pollution from the west”. Especially in Mumbai and surrounding areas Bal Thackeray and others sent out signals before the day warning people not to have anything to do with Valentine. Those who violate this are dealt with harshly by baton-holding brigands of Shiv Sena who lurk in public places especially parks, chasing young people holding hands and others suspected to be lovers. In many parts of south India couples who are found in parks and other public places are immediately forced to marry on the spot by the Shiv Sena and other similar activists.

Valentine’s Cards

Over the centuries, the holiday evolved, and by the 18th century, gift-giving and exchanging hand-made cards on Valentine’s Day had become common in England. Hand-made valentine cards made of lace, ribbons, and featuring cupids and hearts eventually spread to the American colonies. The tradition of Valentine’s cards did not become widespread in the United States, however, until the 1850s, when Esther A. Howland, a Mount Holyoke graduate and native of Worcester, Mass., began mass-producing them. Today, of course, the holiday has become a booming commercial success. According to the Greeting Card Association, 25% of all cards sent each year are valentines.
By the 17th century, handmade cards were oversized and elaborate, while store-bought ones were smaller and costly.
But printers were already beginning to produce a limited number of cards with verses and sketches.
The real revolution came in the early 19th century with a reduction in postal rates. This helped to establish the custom of sending anonymous messages or cards to those one admired.

Router

Internal Components of a Router

Internal Components of a Router

Router Memory

Basically there are 4 types of Memories in a Router, and these are:
• Boot ROM
• Flash
• RAM
• NVRAM

Boot ROM: It stores the mini IOS (Internet work Operating System) image (RX Boot) with extremely limited capabilities and POST routines and core level OS for maintenance.

FLASH: It is an EPROM chip that holds most of the IOS Image. It maintains everything when router is turned off.

Four Types of Router Memories

RAM: RAM holds running IOS configurations and provides caching. RAM is a volatile memory and looses its information when router is turned off. The configuration present in RAM is called Running configuration.

NVRAM: It is a re-write able memory area that holds router’s configuration file. NVRAM retains the information when ever router is rebooted. Once configuration is saved, it will be saved in NVRAM and this configuration is called Startup Configuration.

Types of Routers

There are 2 types of Routers we have:

• Modular Routers
• Fixed Routers

Modular Routers:- These type of routers have up gradable slots, and the number of ports can be increased just by adding cards in the slots.

Fixed Routers:- These types of routers have fixed number of ports.

Configuration of a Router

Router for the first time is configured through the CONSOLE port.COM port of a PC is connected to the console port of router with a console cable by using a transceiver. Router is accessible by a tool. In windows, it is called HYPER TEMINAL. As soon as the router is powered on and accessed, the following things happen,

POST—>BOOT STRAP—->FLASH [ROM (mini IOS) If IOS is Corrupted]—>NVRAM—->Setup Mode

In Setup mode, there will be a message,
“Would You Like To Enter The Initial Configuration [Y/N]” :
If “Y” then, initial configuration starts.
If “N” would you like to terminate the auto installation?
Press “RETURN” to get started……You will land on the default prompt of the Router “ ROUTER >”.
Router>_

Working Modes of a Router

Three main modes of a Router are :
• User Mode (Default mode)
• Privilege or Administrative Mode
• Global Configuration Mode

USER MODE: Router> is the user mode, I,e the default prompt. It means that when ever a router boots successfully it lands into the user mode. Router cannot be configured from this mode, but it is used for just monitoring purpose.
Router> en
Router#

PREVILEGE MODE: Router# it is the administrating mode, we can check whether the settings and configurations made have been implemented or not. Eg. “Router # Sh int e0”. If it is new router all the interfaces are by default shut down, so the message will be, “ Ethernet 0 is administratively down, line protocol is down.”

Global Configuration Mode: As the name indicates, it is a global configuration mode I,e. we can configure any interface from this mode, just by entering into the interface mode.
Router# Config t
Router (Config)#

Some more modes of a Router are

• Interface Configuration Mode
• Line Configuration Mode
• Router Mode
• Sub-Interface Mode

Types of Computer Networks
The most common types of Computer Networks are:
• LAN
• MAN
• WAN

LAN (Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is usually a small network constrained to a small geographic area. An example of a LAN would be a computer network within a building.

LAN Design
Ethernet
When we talk about a LAN, Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology today. Its standard is

Local Area Network

For half-duplex Ethernet 10BaseT topologies, data transmissions occur in one direction at a time, leading to frequent collisions and data retransmission. In contrast, full-duplex devices use separate circuits for transmitting and receiving data and as a result, collisions are largely avoided. A collision is when two nodes are trying to send data at the same time. On an Ethernet network, the node will stop sending when it detects a collision, and will wait for a random amount of time before attempting to resend, known as a jam signal. Also, with full-duplex transmissions the available bandwidth is effectively doubled, as we are using both directions simultaneously. You MUST remember: to enjoy full-duplex transmission, we need a switch port, not a hub, and NICs that are capable of handling full duplex. Ethernets media access control method is called Carrier sense multiple access/ collision dectect (CSMA/CD). Because of Ethernets collision habits it is also known as the best effort delivery system. Ethernet cannot carry data over 1518 bytes, anything over that is broken down into. Travel size packets.

Fast Ethernet
For networks that need higher transmission speeds, there is the Fast Ethernet standard called IEEE 802.3u that raises the Ethernet speed limit to 100 Mbps! Of course, we need new cabling to support this high speed. In 10BaseT network we use Cat3 cable, but in 100BaseT network we need Cat 5 cables. The three types of Fast Ethernet standards are 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP cable.

Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet is an emerging technology that will provide transmission speeds of 1000mbps. It is defined by the IEEE standard The 1000BASE-X (IEEE 802.3z). Just like all other 802.3 transmission types, it uses Ethernet frame format, full-duplex and media access control technology.

Token Ring
Token Ring is an older standard that isn’t very widely used anymore as most have migrated to some form of Ethernet or other advanced technology. Ring topologies can have transmission rates of either 4 or 16mbps. Token passing is the access method used by token ring networks, whereby, a 3bit packet called a token is passed around the network. A computer that wishes to transmit must wait until it can take control of the token, allowing only one computer to transmit at a time. This method of communication aims to prevent collisions. Token Ring networks use multistation access units (MSAUs) instead of hubs on an Ethernet network.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). It might cover a

Metropolitan Area Network

WAN (Wide Area Network)

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a large geographical area, and use communications circuits to

Wide Area Network

WAN Protocols
In general, there are three broad types of WAN access technology. With Leased Lines, we have point-to-point dedicated connection that uses pre-established WAN path provided by the ISP. With Circuit Switching such as ISDN, a dedicated circuit path exist only for the duration of the call. Compare to traditional phone service, ISDN is more reliable and is faster. With Packet Switching, all network devices share a single point-to-point link to transport packets across the carrier network – this is known as virtual circuits.

When we talk about Customer premises equipment(CPE), we are referring to devices physically located at the subscriber?s location. Demarcation is the place where the CPE ends and the local loop begins. A Central Office(CO) has switching facility that provides point of presence for its service. Data Terminal Equipment(DTE) are devices where the switching application resides, and Date Circuit-terminating Equipment(DCE) are devices that convert user data from the DTE into the appropriate WAN protocol. A router is a DTE, while a DSU/CSU device or modem are often being referred to as DCEs.

Some more types of Networks

• Peer to Peer - A peer to peer network is one in which lacks a dedicated server and every computer acts as both a client and a server. This is a good networking solution when there are 10 or less users that are in close proximity to each other. A peer to peer network can be a security nightmare, because the people setting permissions for shared resources will be users rather than administrators and the right people may not have access to the right resources. More importantly the wrong people may have access to the wrong resources, thus, this is only recommended in situations where security is not an issue.

• Client/Server - This type of network is designed to support a large number of users and uses dedicated server/s to accomplish this. Clients log in to the server/s in order to run applications or obtain files. Security and permissions can be managed by 1 or more administrators which cuts down on network users medling with things that they shouldn’t be. This type of network also allows for convenient backup services, reduces network traffic and provides a host of other services that comes with the network operating system(NOS).

• Centralized - This is also a client/server based model that is most often seen in UNIX environments, but the clients are “dumb terminals”. This means that the client may not have a floppy drive, hard disk or CDROM and all applications and processing occur on the server/s. As you can imagine, this requires fast and expensive server/s. Security is very high on this type of network.

Peer to Peer Network

Client/Server Network

Centralized Server Network

Sir Isaac Newton

Newton’s Law of Motions
Newton gives the famous three laws of motion:

Newton's First Law of Motion

• Newton’s First Law of Motion is also known as the Law of Inertia. The Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force.

• Newton’s Second Law of Motion states that an applied force, , on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, , with time. Mathematically, this is expressed as

Since the second law applies to an object with constant mass (dm/dt = 0), the first term vanishes, and by substitution using the definition of acceleration, the equation can be written in the iconic form

The first and second laws represent a break with the physics of Aristotle, in which it was believed that a force was necessary in order to maintain motion. They state that a force is only needed

Newton's Second Law of Motion

• Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that any force exerted onto an object has a counterpart force that is exerted in the opposite direction back onto the first object. A common example is of

Newton's Third Law of Motion

Classical mechanics

Newton’s Second Law

History Fundamental concepts Time • Mass • Force Energy • Momentum Formulations Newtonian mechanics Lagrangian mechanics Hamiltonian mechanics Branches Statics Dynamics Kinematics Applied mechanics Celestial mechanics Continuum mechanics Statistical mechanics Scientists Isaac Newton • Jeremiah Horrocks • Leonhard Euler • Jean le Rond d’Alembert • Alexis Clairaut Joseph Louis Lagrange • Pierre-Simon Laplace • William Rowan Hamilton • Siméon-Denis Poisson

Newton’s Apple Story
According to the well-known story, In the year 1666 he (Isaac Newton) retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must

The Famous Newton's Apple story

Newton conceived that the same force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.
Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley’s interest led Newton to demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to write the Principia.

Newton’s Religious Views
Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton, “Isaac Newton was a heretic. But … he never made a public declaration of his private faith — which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical. In a view disputed by Snobelen, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most Protestants.
Although Newton’s novel idea of 1666 was to imagine that the Earth’s gravity influenced the Moon, counter- balancing its centrifugal force. From his law of centrifugal force and Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, Newton deduced the inverse-square law.
In 1679 Newton corresponded with Hooke who had written to Newton claiming:-
… that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall …
Newton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD, when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature of Christ. The full extent of Newton’s unorthodoxy was recognized only in the present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he expressed a strong sense of God’s providential role in nature. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason. He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: “Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice”. But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities. For this Leibniz lampooned him: “God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move. He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion.” Newton’s position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence.

Some Other Achievments
In 1672 Newton was elected a fellow of the Royal Society after donating a reflecting telescope. Also in 1672 Newton published his first scientific paper on light and colour in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. The paper was generally well received but Hooke and Huygens objected to Newton’s attempt to prove, by experiment alone, that light consists of the motion of small particles rather than waves. The reception that his publication received did nothing to improve Newton’s

Sir Isaac Newton- The Great Scientist

• investigations of the colours of thin sheets
• ‘Newton’s rings’ and
• diffraction of light.

Newton published an edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733). In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, “This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail.”
Some more writings by Sir Isaac Newton are:
• Method of Fluxions (1671)
• Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation (unpublished, c. 1671–75)
• De Motu Corporum in Gyrum (1684)
• Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
• Opticks (1704)
• Reports as Master of the Mint (1701–25)
• Arithmetica Universalis (1707)
• The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, (Amended) and De mundi systemate (published posthumously in 1728)
• Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
• An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture (1754)

Newton remains influential to scientists, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain’s Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein. Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution. In 1999, leading physicists from all over the world voted Einstein “greatest physicist ever;” Newton was the runner-up.

Sir Isaac Newton’s Death
On March 31, 1727 at [OS: 20 March 1727] at the age of 84 in Kensington, Middlesex, England this great scientist takes his last breath.

Sir Isaac Newton’s Quotes

• If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.

• Tact is the knack of making a point without making an enemy.

• I keep the subject of my inquiry constantly before me, and wait till the first dawning opens gradually, by little and little, into a full and clear light.

• To me there has never been a higher source of earthly honor or distinction than that connected with advances in science.

• We build too many walls and not enough bridges.

• I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people.

• If I have ever made any valuable discoveries, it has been owing more to patient attention, than to any other talent.

• No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess

• A man may imagine things that are false, but he can only understand things that are true, for if the things be false, the apprehension of them is not understanding.

• I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time.

• We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

• We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

• I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.

• It is the weight, not numbers of experiments that is to be regarded.

• About the Time of the End, a body of men will be raised up who will turn their attention to the Prophecies, and insist upon their literal interpretation, in the midst of much clamor and opposition

• Errors are not in the art but in the artificers.

• Oh Diamond! Diamond! Thou little knowest the mischief done! (Said to a pet dog who knocked over a candle and set fire to his papers

• Yet one thing secures us what ever betide,/ The scriptures assures us the Lord will provide.

Establishment of Standards is the first step in control process. Standards represent criteria for performance. A standard acts as reference line or a basis of appraisal of actual performance. Standards should be set precisely and preferable in quantitative terms. Setting standard is closely linked and is and integral part of the planning process. Standards are used or bench marks by which performance is measured in the control operations at the planning stage, planning is the basis of control.

Measurement of Performance After establishing the standards, the second step is to measure actual performance of various individuals, groups or units. Management should not depend upon the guess that standards are being met measurement of performance against standards should ideally be done on a forward looking basis so that deviations may be detected in advance of their occurrence and avoided by appropriate actions.

Comparing Performance with Standards Appraisal of performance or comparing of actual performance with pre-determined standards is an important step in control process.
Comparison is easy where standards have been set in quantitative terms as in production and marketing. In other cases, where results are intangible and cannot be measured quantitatively direct personal observations, inspection and reports are few methods which can be used for evaluation. The evaluation will reveal some deviations from the set standards. The evaluator should point out defect or deficiencies in performance and investigate the causes responsible for these.

Taking Corrective Actions Managers should know exactly where in the assignment of individual or group duties, the corrective action must be applied. Managers may correct deviations by redrawing their plans or by modifying their goals. Or they may correct deviations by exercising their organizing functions through reassignment or clarification of duties. They may correct, also, by additional stapling or better selection and training of subordinates.

There are various methods of communication in management. These include
• Oral Communication
• Written Communication
• Non Verbal Communication

Oral Communication
The chief means of conveying messages is oral communication. Oral communication may take place
(a) face to face conversation and (b) through mechanical devices.
Face to face conversation is the most natural way of transmitting message. It is the best means of securing cooperation and resolving problems. Various studies have shown that face to face communication carries the message better than any other media. It avoids misunderstanding between persons talking face to face. It is because by having face to face conversation one can convey the message both by words as well as expressions and receive the response in minimum amount of time. If the receiver is unsure of the message rapid feedback allows for early detection by the sender and hence allows for early correction.
Mechanical devices, which are used, for oral communication include telephones, intercom system and dictating machines.
The major disadvantage of oral communication in management is where decisions and other communication are verbally passed up and down to authority hierarchy; there is considerable opportunity for message to become distorted.

Written Communication
Written Communication include memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions, organizational periodicals notice place on bulletin boards or any other device that is transmitted via written words or symbols. Organizations use written communication because it is tangible and verifiable. Typically both the sender and receiver have a record of the communication. The communication can be stored for an indefinite period. The marketing plan for a new product for instance is likely to contain a number of tasks spread out over several months. By putting it in writing those who have to initiate the plan readily refer to it over the life of plan.
The final benefit of written communication comes from the process itself. A person is usually more careful with the written word than the oral word. One is forced to think more thoroughly about what one has to convey in a written message than in the spoken one.
Written messages have their drawbacks. They are time consuming so although writing may be more precise, it also consumes great deal of time. The other major disadvantage is pack of feedback oral communication allows the receiver to respond rapidly to what he thinks he hears. Written communication however, does not have a feedback mechanism.

Non Verbal Communication Communication through gestures or postures is often used as a means to supplement verbal communication. If there is a face to face conversation between two persons, they can better understand the feelings, attitudes and emotions of each other. Gestural communication is very much helpful to motivate the subordinates, as for instance a pat on the back of the subordinate. Similarly gestures taken by the listeners can help the communicator to know their reactions.

Essential Qualities of Good Business Report
A well written business report can help avoid semantic and perception barriers. A well written business report eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. In writing messages, it is necessary to be precise, making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishes the desired purpose. The language used should be simple, as it will be easier for the receiver to understand the message. The message will be lost if the words used are complex and do not lend to clear single meaning. Vagueness destroys accuracy which leads to misunderstanding of the meaning or intent of the message. Accordingly be specific and to the point.
There is great importance of timing in Business communication. The communication should not only be timely so that the decisions and actions can be taken in time and when necessary but also the timing of the message and the environment setting in which the message is delivered and received is equally important. An important message delivered at he wrong time or in a non-conducive environment may lose its effectiveness.
Business communication must pass through the proper channels to reach the intended receiver. The communication flow ant its spread must avoid by passing levels or people. When these concerned levels are omitted or by passed, it creates bickering distrust confusion and conflict. Accordingly the established channels must be used as required.
Unless it is one-way communication that is simply meant to inform all business, communication needs a follow up to ensure that is was properly understood and carried out. A verbal communication may need to be followed up by written confirmation. The response and feedback to the communication would determine. Whether the action to the communication has been appropriate and accurate.
Business communication should be complete so as not only to meet the demands of today but should also be based on future need of the organization as well as individuals. A reasonable projection and assessment of future needs and environment both work and social should be incorporated when planning and executing communication.

Text Streams
A text stream is a sequence of characters. Standard C allows (but does not require) a text stream to be organized into lines terminated by a newline character. However, the newline character is optional on the last line. (Actually, most C/C++ compilers do not terminate text streams with newline characters.) In a text stream, certain character translations may occur as required by the host environment. For example, a newline may be converted to a carriage return/linefeed pair. Therefore, there may not be a one-to-one relationship between the characters that are written (or read) and those on the external device. Also, because of possible translations, the number of characters written (or read) may not be the same as those on the external device.

Binary Streams
A binary stream is a sequence of bytes that have a one-to-one correspondence to those in the external device that is, no character translations occur. Also, the number of bytes written (or read) is the same as the number on the external device. However, an implementation-defined number of null bytes may be appended to a binary stream. These null bytes might be used to pad the information so that it fills a sector on a disk, for example.

An organization structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. There are six elements that mangers need to address when they design their organization’s structure. These are:
• Work specialization
• Departmentalization
• Chain of command
• Span of control
• Centralisation & Decentralization
• Formalisation

Work Specialization:- refers to the degree to which tasks in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an entire job being done by one individual, it is broken down into a number of steps, with each step being completed by a separate individual.

Departmentalisation:- Once the jobs have been divided through work specialization, these jobs have to be grouped together so that common tasks can be coordinated. The basis by which jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization.
The activities can be grouped by functions performed. A Manufacturing manager might organize his plant by separating engineering, accounting, manufacturing, personnel and supply specialists into common departments. Functional departmentalization seeks to achieve economics of scale by placing people with common skills and orientations into common units.
Tasks can also be departmentalized by the type of product the organization produces. Each major product is placed under the authority of an executive who has complete global responsibility for that product. The major advantage of this type of grouping is increased accountability for product performance, since all the activities related to a product are under the direction of a single manager.
Another way to departmentalize is on the basis of geography or territory. The sales function, for instance, may have western, southern, eastern region. Each of these regions is in effect, a department organized around geography. If an organisation’s customers are scattered over a large geographic area and have similar needs based on their location, then this form of departmentalization.
A final category of departmentalization is to use the particular type of customer. An organization can organize itself around customer groups like corporates, retail, government etc.

Chain of Command is an unbroken line of authority that extends from the top of the organization to the lowest level and clarifies who reports to whom. It answers questions for employees such as” To whom do I go if I have a problem?” and ‘ To whom am I responsible?”
The unity of command principle helps preserve the concept of an unbroken line of authority. It states that a person should have one and only one superior to whom he or she is directly responsible. If the unity of command is broken, an employee might have to cope with conflicting demands or priorities from several superiors.

Span of control refers to the number of subordinates a manager can efficiently and effectively direct. Span of control is important because, to a large degree, it determines the number of levels and managers and organization has all things being equal the wider or larger the span, the more efficient the organization. Narrow span has three major drawbacks. First, they are expensive because they add to the levels of management. Second, they make vertical communication in the organization more complex. The added levels of hierarchy slow down decision making and tend to isolate upper management. Third, narrow spans of control encourage overly tight supervision and discourage autonomy.

Centralisation and Decentralisation:- Centralisation refers to the degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization. The concept includes only formal authority that is, the rights inherent to one’s position. Typically, it’s said that if top management makes the organisation’s key decision with little or no input from lower-level personnel, then the organization is centralized. In contrast, the actually given the discretion to make decision, the more decentralisation there is.
An organization characterized by centralization is an Inherently different structural entity from one that is an inherently different structural entity from one that is decentralized. In a decentralized organization, action can be taken more quickly to solve problem, more people provide input into decisions and employees are less likely to feel alienated from those who make the decisions that effect their work lives.
Consistent with recent management efforts to make organization more flexible and responsive, there has been a marked trend toward decentralizing decision making. In large companies, lower-level managers are closer to “the action” and typically have more detailed knowledge about problems than do top management.

Formalisation refers to the degree to which job within the organization are standardized. If a job is highly formalized then the job incumbent has a minimum amount of discretion
Over what is to be done, when it is to be done and how it is to be done. Employees can be expected always to handle the same input in exactly same way, resulting in a consistent and uniform output. There are explicitly job description lots of organizational rules, and dearly defined procedures covering work processes in organizations in which thee is high formalization. Where formalization is low, job behaviors are relatively non-programmed and employees have a great deal of freedom to exercise discretion in their work. Because an individual’s discretion on the job is inversely related to the amount of behavior in that job that is preprogrammed by the organization, the greater the standardization and the less input the employee has into how his or her work is to be done. Standardization not his/her work is to be done. Standardization not only eliminates the possibility of employees engaging in alternative behaviors, but it even removes the need for employees to consider alternatives.

Common organizational Designs
There are three common organizational designs- Simple structure, bureaucracy and the matrix structure.

Simple Structure:- Simple structure is characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide span of control, authority centralized in a single person and little formalization. The simple structure is a “felt ” organization, it usually has only two or three vertical levels, a lower body of employees and one individual in whom the decision making authority is centralized. The simple structure is most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and the owner are one and the same. The strength of the simple structure less in its simplicity. It’s fast flexible and inexpensive to maintain and accountability is dear.

Bureaucracy:- The key concept that underlies all bureaucracy is standardization. It is a structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow span of control and decision making the chain of command.
The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in its ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like specialties together in functional departments results in economics of scale, minimum duplications of personal and equipment. Furthermore bureaucracy gives opportunity to less talented and hence less costly middle and lower level managers. The pervasiveness of rules and regulations substitutes for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupled with high formalization allow decision making to be centralized. There is little need therefore for innovative and experienced decision makers below the level of senior executives.

Matrix Structure:- Matrix structure creates dual line of authority and combines functional and product departmentalization .
The strength of functional departmentalization lies in putting like specialists together, which minimizes the number necessary while allowing the pooling and sharing of specialized resources across products. Its major disadvantage is the difficulty of coordinating the tasks of diverse functional specialists so that their activities are completed on time and within budget. Product departmentation, on the other hand, has exactly the opposite benefits and disadvantages. It facilitates coordination among specialties to achieve on-time completion and meet budgets targets. Further more, it provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of activities and costs. The matrix attempts to gain the strength of each, while avoiding their weaknesses.
The most obvious structural characteristics of the matrix is that it breaks the unity of command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses-their functional department managers and their product managers. Therefore, the matrix has a dual chain of command.
The strength of the matrix lies in its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. As an organization gets larger, its information processing capacity can become overloaded. In a bureaucracy, complexity results in increased formularization. The direct and frequent contact between different specialists in the matrix can make for better communication and more quickly reaches the people who need to take account of it.

Stress Management

Stress is the “wear and tear” our bodies experience as we adjust to our continually changing environment; it has physical and emotional effects on us and can create positive or negative feelings. As a positive influence, stress can help compel us to action; it can result in a new awareness and an exciting new perspective. As a negative influence, it can result in feelings of distrust, rejection, anger, and depression, which in turn can lead to health problems such as headaches, upset stomach, rashes, insomnia, ulcers, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke. With the death of a loved one, the birth of a child, a job promotion, or a new relationship, we experience stress as we readjust our lives. In so adjusting to different circumstances, stress will help or hinder us depending on how we react to it.

Factor causing Stress
Three sets of factor
• Environmental
• Organizational
• Individual
That act as potential cause of stress. Whether they become actual stress depends on individual differences such as job experience and personality when stress is experienced an individual, its symptoms can surface as physiological, psychological and behavioral outcomes.

Environmental factors– just as environmental uncertainty influences the design of an organization’s structure, it also changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties. When company B is contractive, for example, people become increasingly anxious about their job security. Similarly political instability is a cause of stress. Political crisis like civil war, riots, hostilities with neighboring countries etc can lead to stress. Technology uncertainties are a third type of environmental factor that can cause stress. New innovations can make employee’s skills and experience obsolete in a very short time, computers, robotics, automation and similar forms of technology innovations are a threat to many people and cause them stress.

Organizational factors– Organizational factors that cause stress include task, role, and Interpersonal demands, organizational structure and organizational leadership. Task demands are factors related to a person’s job. They include the design of individual’s job (autonomy task variety, degree of automation), working conditions and physical work layout.
Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the particular role he or she plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to do more than time permits.
Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees, lack of social support from colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause considerable stress, especially among employees with a high social needs.
Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the degree of rules and regulation and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in decisions that might be potential is sources of stress.
Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization’s senior managers. One chief executive officer creates a cultural characterized by tension, fear and anxiety. They establish unrealistic pressures to perform in the short run, impose excessively tight controls, and routinely fire employees for poor – performance.

Individual factors- Primarily, these factors are family issues, personal economic problems and inherent personality characteristics. People hold family and personal relationships dear. Marital difficulties, the breaking off of a relationship and discipline troubles with children are examples of relationship problems that create stress for employees. Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources is another set of personal troubles that can create stress for employees and distract their attention from their work. Some people may have an inherent tendency to accentuate negative aspect of the world in general i.e. stress symptoms expressed on the job may actually originate in the person’s personality.

Stress can be removed by the following method:

Strength: Physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual. Physical and emotional weakness leads to irritability. A strong, healthy body developed through proper diet, exercise and pranayama techniques helps reduce stress at the physical level. Through satsang and appropriate learning gained therein, the mind can be strengthened. Love, compassion and friendship are valuable strength-givers that help us cope with stress.
The scriptures say that knowledge of the Self cannot be gained without inner strength. Rabindranath Tagore, in a poem, prays to the Lord not to remove all obstacles, but instead, he asks for strength to bear them. Before the start of the Mahabharata war Arjun was seized with a bout of emotional weakness and he refused to fight the war. Lord Krishna rescued him by giving him emotional strength.

Traffic control: We need to regulate and control our thoughts. We can cope with stress best if our thoughts are orderly and methodical. Unnecessary accumulation leads to clogging of the mind. The key lies in being able to live one moment at a time. Eat while eating, work while working, leave the home at home and the office in the office. Remember, however long we have to travel we can only take one step at a time. Worrying only reduces efficiency and then even simple tasks cannot be completed correctly and in time.

Re-design: We tend to view life and ourselves through our own philosophy. A readjustment or reorientation in this philosophy increases our capacity to bear heavier loads.

Erase the ego: The ego, anger, fear and jealousy are negative emotions that reduce efficiency, leading to mental weakness, causing stress. Too much emphasis on the ego, or abrogation of doer ship is responsible for increasing stress. Sri Rama asked Sri Hanuman how he was able to cause so much havoc in Lanka and yet return unscathed. Hanuman disclaimed all responsibility. He said, “I did not do it, you did it through me”. There is a higher power or strength working through us.

Sharing your feeling: Share your wealth, knowledge, workload or anything else you have. By and large people do not know how to share or delegate. Lord Vishnu as the manager of the world is the best example of delegation of work. Everything happens under his stewardship but he remains free and at-ease.

Surrender to the Lord: Free your mind from the weight of worries and become an instrument, adopting an attitude of service. This attitude will ensure efficiency, success, and freedom from stress.

Distributive Bargaining
Distributive bargaining is defined as negotiations that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources, a win lose situation. Its most identifying feature is that it operates under zero sum conditions i.e. each party bargains aggressively and treats the other as an opponent who must be defeated.
The essence of distributive bargaining is that each party has a target point that defines what he/she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable the point below which they would break off negotiations rather then accept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each one’s aspiration range. As long as these is some overlap between the aspiration ranges, their exists a settlement range in which each one’s aspiration can be met.
When engaged in distributive bargaining one’s tactics focus on try to get one’s opponent to agree to one’s specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. Examples of such tactics are persuading to his/her target point and the advisability of accepting a settlement near yours arguing that your target is fair, which your opponent’s is not and attempting to get you opponent to feel emotionally generous toward you and thus accept an outcome close to your target point.

Integrative Bargaining
Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements than create win- win situation.
In terms of intra-organizational behavior all things being equal integrative bargaining is preferable to distributive bargaining. Integrative bargaining builds long term relationships and facilitates working together in the future. It bonds negotiators and allows each to leave the bargaining table feeling that he/she has achieved a victory. Distributive bargaining on the other hand, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosities and deeper divisions when people have to work together on an ongoing process.

The Negotiation Process
Negotiation is made up of five steps:- • Preparation and Planning
• Definition of Ground Rules
• Clarification and Justification
• Bargaining and Problem Solving
• Closure and Implementation.

Preparation and planning:- Before the start of negations one must be aware of conflict the history leading to the negotiation the people involved and their perception of the conflict expectations from the negotiations etc.

Definition of ground rules:- Once the planning and strategy is development one has to begin defining the ground rules and procedures with the other party over the negotiation itself that will do the negotiation. Where will it take place? What time constrains, if any will apply? To what issues will negotiations be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow in an impasse is reached? During this phase the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.

Clarification and justification:- When initial positions have been exchanged both the parties will explain amplify, clarify, bolster and justify their original demands. This need not be confrontational. Rather it is an opportunity for educating and informing each other on the issues why they are important and how each arrived at their initial demands. This is the point where one party might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support its position.

Bargaining and problem solving:- The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an agreement. It is here where concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.

Closure and Implementation:- The final step in the negotiation process is formalization the agreement that has been worked out and developing and procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. For major negotiations – this will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract.

Third Party Negotiations
If the group or parties reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiation they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. The different third party roles are:-

• Mediator:- Mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives and like. Mediators are widely used in labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. To be effective the mediator must be perceived as neutral and non-coercive.

• Arbitrator:- An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. Arbitration can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory. The authority of the arbitrator varies according to the rules set by the negotiators.

There are various conflicts resolution techniques. These include:
• Problem Solving: Face to face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion.

• Super ordinate goals: Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties.

• Expansion of resources: When a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resources- say –money. Promotion opportunities, office space- expansion of the resource can create win- win solutions.

• Avoidance: Withdraw from or suppression of, the conflict.

• Smoothing: Playing down differences while emphasizing common interest between the conflicting parties.

• Compromise: Each party to the conflicts gives up something of value.

• Authoritative Command: Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then communicates its desires to the parties involved.

• Altering the human variables: Using behavioral change technique such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.

• Altering the structural variables: Changing the formal organization structure and interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordination positions and the like.
In order to differentiate functional and dysfunctional conflict, it is necessary to look into type of conflict. Specifically , there are three types: tasks relationship and process

Task conflict: relates to the contents and goals of the work
Relationship Conflict: focuses on interpersonal relationship.
Process conflict relates to how work gets done.
Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. It appears that the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. On the other hand, low level of process conflict and low to moderate level of tasks conflicts are functional.

The Conflict Process

The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages:
(1) Potential opposition or Incompatibility
(2) Cognition and Personalization
(3) Intentions
(4) Behavior
(5) Outcome

Potential opposition or incompatibility: The first step in the conflict process is the presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. These cause or create opportunities for conflict to rise. These causes or sources of conflict have been condenses into three general categories:
(1) Communications
(2) Structure
(3) Personal Variables

• Communications: Different words connotations, jargon insufficient exchange of information and noise in communication channel are all antecedent conditions to conflict. Too much communication as well as too little communication can rely foundation for conflict.

• Structure: The term structure is used, in this context to include variables such as size, degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, members/ goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups.
The size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. Tenure and conflict have been found to be inversely related,. The potential for conflicts tends to be greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in defining where responsibility for action lies, the greater the potential for conflict to emerge. Such Jurisdictional ambiguity increases inter group fighting for control or resources and territory.

• Personal Variables: Certain personality types- for example individuals who are highly authoritarian and dogmatic- lead to potential conflict. Another reason for conflict is difference in value systems. Value differences are the best explanations of diverse issues such as prejudice disagreements over one’s contribution to the group and rewards one deserves.

Stage 2
Cognition and personalization: conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Because conflict is perceives does not mean that is personalized. For e.g. ” A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreements but it may not make A tense or nations and it may have no effect whatsoever on A’s affection towards B” It is the felt level , when individuals become emotionally involved that parties experience anxiety , tension or hostility.
Stage 2 is the place in the process where the parties decide what the conflict is about and emotions plays a major role in shaping perception.

Stage3
Intentions: Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between people’s perception and emotions and their overt behavior.

Using two dimensions cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns)and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns)- five conflict handling intentions can be identified.

• Competing: when one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict, he is competing.

• Collaborating: A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all the parties. In collaborating, the intention o the parties are to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view.

• Avoiding: a person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress it. Avoiding included trying to just ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree.

• Accommodating: The willingness of one partying a conflict top lace the opponent’s interest above his or her own.

• Compromising: A situation in which each party to a conflict is wiling to give up something.

Intentions provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each party’s purpose. Yet people intention is not fixed. During the course of conflict, they might change because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction to the behavior of other party.

Stage 4
Behavior: This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempt to implement each party’s intentions.

Stage 5
Outcomes: The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the group’s performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance.
Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions simulates creativity and innovations encourages interest and curiosity among group members provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self evaluation and change.
Conflict is dysfunctional when uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. Among the more undesirable consequences are a retarding of communication, reductions in group cohesiveness and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members.

Bases of Power
Power can be of two types:-
• Formal
• Personal

Formal Power
Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization. Formal power can come from the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authoring or from control of information.

Coercive power
The coercive power base is dependent on fees. One reacts to this power out of fear of the negative results that might occur if one failed to comply. It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.

EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment is putting employees in charge of what they do. Decision making is pushed down to the operating level, where workers are given the freedom to make choices about schedules and procedures and to solve work related problems. Employees are allowed full control and their work. An increasing numbers of organizations are using self managed teams, in which workers operate largely without bosses. Empowerment is necessary component of a customer responsive culture because it allows service employees to make on the post decisions to satisfy customer completely.
In empowering employees managers have to learn how to give up control and employees have to learn how to take responsibility for their work and make appropriate decisions.
There are several barriers to empowerment. Some managers are very reluctant to delegate authority and many sub-ordinates avoid taking on the responsibility and authority. The causes for such reluctance are based upon certain beliefs and attitudes which are personal and behavioral in nature.
A. Reluctance of executive.
• A manager may believe that he can do this work better than his subordinate. He subordinates are not capable enough. Delegation may take a lot of time in explaining the responsibility to the subordinate and the managers may not have the patience to explain supervise and correct any mistake.
• Lack of confidence and trust in subordinate: since the manager is responsible for the action of his subordinates he may not be wiling to take chances with the subordinates in case the job is not done right.
• Sense of in security some managers feel very insecure in delegating authority specially when the subordinate is capable of doing the job. The manager in such a situation may feel his loss or power and competition from the subordinates.

B. Reluctance of subordinates
• Many subordinates are reluctance to accept authority and make decisions for fear that they would be criticized or dismissed for making wrong decisions. This is especially true in situations where subordinates had make a mistake earlier.
• The subordinates may not be given sufficient incentives for assuming extra responsibility which could mean working harder under pressure. Accordingly I the absence of adequate compensation in the form of higher salary or promotional opportunities a subordinate may avoid additional responsibility.
• The subordinate may lock self confidence in doing the job and may fear the supervisor will not be available for guidance once the delegation is made and this makes them feel uncomfortable with additional responsibility.
• Some subordinates hesitate to accept new and added assignment when there is lack of necessary information and when the available resources are nit adequate or proper.
Facilitators of empowerment.
Since empowerment results in several organizational advantage, it becomes necessary for the management any barriers to effective empowerment.
Arbitrator’s decision. Therefore, the conflict might surface at a later time.

CONCILIATOR

A conciliator is a third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. In practice, conciliator typically acts as more than mere communication conduits. They also engage in fact finding, interpreting message and persuading disputants to develop agreements.

CONSULTANT

A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attempt to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis, aided by his or her knowledge of conflict management. The consultant’s role is not to settle the issues but, rather, to improve relations between the conflicting parties so that they can reach a settlement themselves. Instead of putting forward specific solutions, the consultant tries to help the parties learn to understand and work with each other.